Balarila ng Wikang Hapones: Pagkakaiba sa mga binago

Mayroong regular na morpolohiyang pang-uring [[aglutinatibo]] ang [[Wikang Hapones]], na may parehas na produktibo at nakaayos na elemento. Sa wikang tipolohiya, mayroon itong itinatampok na diberhento mula sa mga wikang Europeyo. Ang mga panaguri ay karaniwang [[Head (linguistics)|puno]]-huli at maramihang pangungusap ay isa ring kaliwang-[[branching (linguistics)|sangay]].<ref>Sa kabaligtaran, Ang mga [[Wikang Romansa]] tulad ng [[Spanish language|Espanyol]] ay mataal sa kanang sangay, at ang mga [[Wikang Aleman]] tulad ng [[English language|Ingles]] ay hindi taal sa kanang sangay</ref> Maraming [[subject–object–verb|tulad na wika]], subalit kakaunti sa Europa.

 

The modern theory of constituent order ("word order"), usually attributed to [[Joseph Greenberg]], identifies several kinds of phrase. Each one has a '''head''' and possibly a modifier. The head of a phrase either precedes its modifier (head initial) or follows it (head final). Some of these phrase types, with the head marked in boldface, are:

*genitive phrase, i.e., noun modified by another noun ("the '''cover''' of the book", "the book's '''cover'''");

Head finality prevails also when sentences are coordinated instead of subordinated. In the world's languages, it is common to avoid repetition between coordinated clauses by optionally deleting a constituent common to the two parts, as in ''Bob bought his mother some flowers and his father a tie'', where the second ''bought'' is omitted. In Japanese, such "gapping" must precede in the reverse order: ''Bob mother for some flowers and father for tie bought''. The reason for this is that in Japanese, sentences always end in a verb—the only exceptions being a few particles such as ''ka'' or ''ne''. ''ka'' turns a statement into a question, while the other sentence-final particles express the speaker's attitude towards the statement.

 

Japanese has five major '''lexical''' [[word class]]es:

*nouns

The system of word classes in Japanese has yet another typologically unusual characteristic: the subclass of nominal adjectives is syntactically heterogeneous. It has its own subdivisions defined by the array of syntactic divergences they have versus the pure nouns.{{Clarify| reason = This is not easy to understand. Could we have some examples?|date=January 2011}}

 

In [[discourse]] [[pragmatics]], the term ''topic'' refers to what a section of discourse is about. At the beginning of a section of discourse, the topic is usually unknown, in which case it is usually necessary to explicitly mention it. As the discourse carries on, the topic need not be the grammatical subject of each new sentence.

 

Both sentences translate as "the sun rises". In the first sentence the sun (太陽 ''taiyō'') is not a discourse topic—not yet; in the second sentence it now ''is'' a discourse topic. In linguistics (specifically, in discourse pragmatics) a sentence such as the second one (with ''wa'') is termed a '''presentational''' sentence because its function in the discourse is to present ''sun'' as a topic, to "broach it for discussion". Once a [[referent]] has been established as the topic of the current monolog or dialog, then in (formal) modern Japanese its marking will change from ''wa'' to ''ga''. To better explain the difference, the translation of the second sentence can be enlarged to "As for the sun, it rises" or "Speaking of the sun, it rises"; these renderings reflect a discourse fragment in which "the sun" is being established as the topic of an extended discussion.

 

The grammatical [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] is commonly omitted in Japanese, as in

:日本に行きました

The sentence literally expresses "went to Japan". Subjects are mentioned when a topic is introduced, or in situations where an ambiguity might result from their omission. The preceding example sentence would most likely be uttered in the middle of a discourse, where who it is that "went to Japan" will be clear from what has already been said (or written).

 

''Text'' (文章 ''bunshō'') is composed of ''[[Sentence (linguistics)|sentences]]'' (文 ''bun''), which are in turn composed of ''[[phrase]]s'' (文節 ''bunsetsu''), which are its smallest coherent components. Like [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and classical [[Korean language|Korean]], written Japanese does not typically demarcate words with spaces; its agglutinative nature further makes the concept of a ''[[word]]'' rather different from words in [[English language|English]]. The listener identifies word divisions by semantic cues and a knowledge of phrase structure. Phrases have a ''single'' meaning-bearing word, followed by a string of [[suffix]]es, [[auxiliary verb]]s and [[Grammatical particle|particles]] to modify its meaning and designate its grammatical role. In the following example, phrases are indicated by vertical bars:

:太陽が｜東の｜空に｜昇る。

Some scholars [[Romanization|romanize]] Japanese sentences by inserting spaces only at phrase boundaries (''i.e.'', "''taiyō-ga higashi-no sora-ni noboru''"), treating an entire phrase as a single word. This represents an almost purely phonological conception of where one word ends and the next begins. There is some validity in taking this approach: [[phonology|phonologically]], the [[Preposition and postposition|postpositional]] particles merge with the structural word that precedes them, and within a ''phonological'' phrase, the pitch can have at most one fall. Usually, however, grammarians adopt a more conventional concept of ''word'' (単語 ''tango''), one which invokes meaning and sentence structure.

 

In linguistics generally, words and affixes are often classified into two major word categories: [[lexical word|'''lexical''' words]], those that refer to the world outside of a discourse, and [[function word|'''function''' words]]—also including fragments of words—which help to build the sentence in accordance with the grammar rules of the language. Lexical words include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and sometimes prepositions and postpositions, while grammatical words or word parts include everything else. The native tradition in Japanese grammar scholarship seems to concur in this view of classification. This native Japanese tradition uses the terminology ''jiritsugo'' (自立語), "independent words", for words having lexical meaning, and ''fuzokugo'' (付属語), "ancillary words", for words having a grammatical function.

 

Ancillary words also divide into a nonconjugable class, containing grammatical particles (助詞 ''joshi'') and [[Japanese counter word|counter words]] (助数詞 ''josūshi''), and a conjugable class consisting of auxiliary verbs (助動詞 ''jodōshi''). There is not wide agreement among linguists as to the English translations of the above terms.

 

Uehara (1998)<ref>Uehara 1998, chapter 2, especially §2.2.2.2</ref> observes that Japanese grammarians have disagreed as to the criteria that make some words "inflectional", ''katsuyō'', and others not, in particular, the 形容動詞 ''keiyōdōshi'' – "''na''-adjectives" or "''na''-nominals. (It is not disputed that nouns like 'book' and 'mountain' are noninflectional and that verbs and ''i''-adjectives are inflectional.) The claim that ''na''-adjectives are inflectional rests on the claim that the syllable ''da'' 'is', usually regarded as a "copula verb", is really a suffix—an inflection. Thus ''hon'' 'book', generates a one-word sentence, ''honda'' 'it is a book', not a two-word sentence, ''hon da''. However, numerous constructions seem to be incompatible with the suffixal copula claim.

 

Similarly, [[Eleanor Harz Jorden]] considers this class of words a kind of nominal, not adjective, and refers to them as ''na''-nominals in her textbook ''[[Japanese: The Spoken Language]].''

 

{{see also|Honorific speech in Japanese}}

Japanese has no [[grammatical gender]], [[grammatical number|number]], or [[article (grammar)|article]]s (though the demonstrative その, ''sono'', "that, those", is often translatable as "the"). Thus, specialists have agreed that Japanese [[noun]]s are non[[inflection|inflecting]]: 猫 ''neko'' can be translated as "cat", "cats", "a cat", "the cat", "some cats" and so forth, depending on context. However, as part of the extensive pair of grammatical systems that Japanese possesses for ''honorification'' (making discourse deferential to the addressee or even to a third party) and politeness, nouns too can be modified. Nouns take politeness prefixes (which have not been regarded as inflections): ''o-'' for native nouns, and ''go-'' for Sino-Japanese nouns. A few examples are given in the following table. In a few cases, there is [[suppletion]], as with the first of the examples given below, 'rice'. (Note that while these prefixes are almost always in ''[[Hiragana]]''&nbsp;— that is, as お ''o-'' or ご ''go''&nbsp;— the ''[[kanji]]'' 御 is used for both ''o'' and ''go'' prefixes in formal writing.)

The suffixes ''-tachi'' (達) and ''-ra'' (等) are by far the most common collectivizing suffixes. These are, again, not pluralizing suffixes: ''tarō-tachi'' does not mean "some number of people named Taro", but instead indicates the group including Taro. Depending on context, ''tarō-tachi'' might be translated into "Taro and his friends", "Taro and his siblings", "Taro and his family", or any other logical grouping that has Taro as the representative. Some words with collectives have become fixed phrases and (commonly) refer to one person. Specifically, ''kodomo'' 'child' and ''tomodachi'' 'friend' can be singular, even though ''-[t]omo'' and ''-[t]achi'' were originally collectivizing in these words; to unambiguously refer to groups of them, an additional collectivizing suffix is added: ''kodomotachi'' 'children' and ''tomodachitachi'' 'friends', though ''tomodachitachi'' is somewhat uncommon. ''Tachi'' is sometimes applied to inanimate objects, ''kuruma'' 'car' and ''kuruma-tachi'', 'cars', for example, but this usage is colloquial and indicates a high level of anthropomorphisation and childlikeness, and is not more generally accepted as standard.

 

:{{Main|Japanese pronouns}}

<div style="margin-left: 2em; float: right;">

:(I) met him and returned Honda's book. (Here, "him" ''cannot'' refer to Honda.)

 

English has a reflexive form of each [[personal pronoun]] (''himself'', ''herself'', ''itself'', ''themselves'', etc.); Japanese, in contrast, has one main reflexive ''daimeishi'', namely ''jibun'' (自分), which can also mean 'I'. The uses of the reflexive (pro)nouns in the two languages are very different, as demonstrated by the following literal translations (*=impossible, ??=ambiguous):

{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: 2em;"

Change in a verb's [[Valency (linguistics)|valency]] is not accomplished by use of reflexive pronouns (in this Japanese is like English but unlike many other European languages). Instead, separate (but usually related) [[intransitive verb]]s and [[transitive verb]]s are used. There is no longer any productive morphology to derive transitive verbs from intransitive ones, or vice versa.

 

<div style="margin-left: 2em; float: right">

{| class="wikitable" <!-- cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" border="1" -->

:What on earth is this?

 

Prior to discussing the conjugable words, a brief note about ''stem forms''. Conjugative suffixes and auxiliary verbs are attached to the stem forms of the affixee. In modern Japanese there are the following six stem forms.

 

The application of conjugative suffixes to stem forms follow certain euphonic principles (音便 ''onbin''), which is discussed below.

 

:{{Main|Japanese verb conjugations and adjective declensions}}

 

As should be expected, the vast majority of theoretically possible combinations of conjugative endings are not semantically meaningful.

 

Japanese has a large variety of related pairs of [[transitive verb]]s (that take a direct object) and [[intransitive verb]]s (that do not ''usually'' take a direct object), such as the transitive ''hajimeru'' (始める, an actor begins an activity), and the intransitive ''hajimaru'' (始まる, an activity begins).<ref>http://www.sljfaq.org/afaq/jitadoushi.html</ref><ref>http://kimallen.sheepdogdesign.net/Japanese/verbs2.html Japanese verbs, part 2</ref>

For example,

:I go beyond the speed limit.

 

:{{Main|Japanese adjectives}}

 

Adjectives too are governed by euphonic rules in certain cases, as noted in the section on it below. For the polite negatives of ''na''-type adjectives, see also the section below on the copula だ ''da''.

 

The [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]] ''da'' behaves very much like a verb or an adjective in terms of conjugation.

 

{{-}}

 

<div style="float: right; margin-left: 2em;">

{| class="wikitable"

|}

 

Adverbs in Japanese are not as tightly integrated into the morphology as in many other languages. Indeed, adverbs are not an independent class of words, but rather a role played by other words. For example, every adjective in the continuative form can be used as an adverb; thus, 弱い ''yowai'' 'weak' (adj) → 弱く ''yowaku'' 'weakly' (adv). The primary distinguishing characteristic of adverbs is that they cannot occur in a predicate position, just as it is in English. The following classification of adverbs is not intended to be authoritative or exhaustive.

; Verbal adverbs: are verbs in the continuative form with the particle ''ni''. E.g. 見る ''miru'' 'to see' → 見に ''mi ni'' 'for the purpose of seeing', used for instance as: 見に行く ''mi ni iku'', ''go to see (something)''.

Examples of interjections: はい (''hai'', yes/OK/uh), へえ (''hē'', wow!), いいえ (''īe'', no/no way), おい (''oi'', hey!), etc.

 

:{{Main|Japanese particles}}

 

Particles in Japanese are postpositional, as they immediately follow the modified component. A full listing of particles is beyond the scope of this article, so only a few prominent particles are listed here. Keep in mind that the pronunciation and spelling differ for the particles ''wa'' (は), ''e'' (へ) and ''o'' (を): This article follows the [[Hepburn romanization|Hepburn-style]] of romanizing them according to the ''pronunciation'' rather than spelling.

 

The complex distinction between the so-called topic (は ''wa'') and subject (が ''ga'') particles has been the theme of many doctoral dissertations and scholarly disputes. A Japanese sentence, 象は鼻が長い "Elephant is nose is long", i.e. is well known among Japanese linguists where the above sentence appears to contain two subjects. The above sentence does not mean "the nose of elephant is long" as this can be translated back to 象の鼻は長い. Rather it means, "(speaking of) elephant, (its) nose is long."

 

''See [[Topic marker#Japanese: は|Topic marker: Japanese: は]].

 

The use of ''wa'' to introduce a new theme of discourse is directly linked to the notion of grammatical theme. Opinions differ on the structure of discourse theme, though it seems fairly uncontroversial to imagine a first-in-first-out hierarchy of themes that is threaded through the discourse. Of course, human limitations restrict the scope and depth of themes, and later themes may cause earlier themes to expire. In these sorts of sentences, the steadfast translation into English uses constructs like "''speaking of X''" or "''on the topic of X''", though such translations tend to be bulky as they fail to use the thematic mechanisms of English. For lack of a comprehensive strategy, many teachers of Japanese emphasize the "''speaking of X''" pattern without sufficient warning.

:ジョンは学生である。

A common linguistic joke shows the insufficiency of rote translation with the sentence 僕は鰻だ ''boku wa unagi da'', which per the pattern would translate as "''I am an eel.''" (or "(As of) me is eel"). Yet, in a restaurant this sentence can reasonably be used to say "My order is eel" (or "I would like to order an eel"), with no intended humour. This is because the sentence should be literally read, "As for me, it is an eel," with "it" referring to the speaker's order. The topic of the sentence is clearly not its subject.

 

Related to the role of ''wa'' in introducing themes is its use in contrasting the current topic and its aspects from other possible topics and their aspects. The suggestive pattern is "''X, but...''" or "''as for X, ...''".

:{{lang|ja|雨は降っていますが...}}

The first interpretation is the thematic ''wa'', treating "the people I know" (''boku ga shitte iru hito'') as the theme of the predicate "none came" (''dare mo konakatta''). That is, if I know A, B, ..., Z, then none of the people who came were A, B, ..., Z. The second interpretation is the contrastive ''wa''. If the likely attendees were A, B, ..., Z, and of them I know P, Q and R, then the sentence says that P, Q and R did not come. The sentence says ''nothing'' about A', B', ..., Z', all of whom I know, but none of whom were likely to come. (In practice the first interpretation is the likely one.)

 

Unlike ''wa'', the subject particle ''ga'' nominates its referent as the sole satisfier of the predicate. This distinction is famously illustrated by the following pair of sentences.

:ジョンは学生です。

:The eel is for me (not these other people).

 

For stative transitive verbs, ''ga'' instead of ''o'' is typically used to mark the object.

:ジョンはフランス語が出来る。

:John knows French.

 

The direct object of non-stative transitive verbs is indicated by the object particle を ''o''.

:ジョンは青いセーターを着ている。

:On a spring eve...

 

To conjoin nouns, と ''to'' is used.

:かばんには、教科書三冊と漫画本五冊を入れています。

:You are louder/more talkative than my sister!

 

The particle と ''to'' is used to set off quotations.

:「殺して・・・殺して」とあの子は言ってたの。

:O my beloved daughter, don't frown at me so!

 

The [[sentence-final particle]] か ''ka'' turns a declarative sentence into a question.

:そちらはアメリカ人でしょうか?

There are many such emphatic particles; some examples: ぜ ''ze'' and ぞ ''zo'' usually used by males; な ''na'' a less formal form of ''ne''; わ ''wa'' used by females (and males in the [[Kansai]] region) like ''yo'', etc. They are essentially limited to speech or transcribed dialogue.

 

Compound particles are formed with at least one particle together with other words, including other particles. The commonly seen forms are:

* particle + verb (term. or cont. or ''-te'' form)

:Ignoring my parents' worries, my brother dropped out of college. (particle + noun + particle)

 

All auxiliary verbs attach to a verbal or adjectival [[#Stem forms|stem form]] and conjugate as verbs. In modern Japanese there are two distinct classes of auxiliary verbs:

; Pure auxiliaries (助動詞 ''jodōshi'') : are usually just called ''verb endings'' or ''conjugated forms''. These auxiliaries do not function as independent verbs.

*Note: 得る ''eru''/''uru'' is the only modern verb of ''shimo nidan'' type (and it is different from the ''shimo nidan'' type of classical Japanese), with conjugations: irrealis え, continuative え, terminal える or うる, attributive うる, hypothetical うれ, imperative えろ or えよ.

 

{{reflist}}

 

* Bloch, Bernard. (1946). Studies in colloquial Japanese I: Inflection. ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', ''66'', 97–109.

* Bloch, Bernard. (1946). Studies in colloquial Japanese II: Syntax. ''Language'', ''22'', 200–248.

*Uehara, Satoshi. 1998. Syntactic categories in Japanese: a cognitive and typological introduction. Kurosio. Series: Studies in Japanese linguistics; 9.

 

{{Wikibooks|Japanese|Grammar/Transitivity|Transitivity}}

* [http://www.sljfaq.org/afaq/afaq.html FAQ] for <code>sci.lang.japan</code>.

 

{{DEFAULTSORT:Japanese Grammar}}

 

[[de:Japanische Grammatik]]