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[[File:Bernhardt Hamlet2.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Sarah Bernhardt]] as [[Hamlet]], in 1899]]
'''Theatre''' (in [[American English]] usually '''theater'''<ref>''Merriam-Webster Dictionary''[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/theater], 2011</ref>) is a collaborative form of [[fine art]] that uses live performers to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place. The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of gesture, speech, song, music or dance. Elements of design and [[stagecraft]] are used to enhance the physicality, presence and immediacy of the experience.<ref>M. Carlson, ''Journal of Dramatic Theory and Criticism'', [https://journals.ku.edu/index.php/jdtc/article/view/1642/1606], 2011</ref> The specific place of the performance is also named by the word "theatre" as derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] θέατρον (théatron, “a place for viewing”) and θεάομαι (theáomai, “to see", "to watch", "to observe”).
Modern Western theatre derives in large measure from ancient Greek drama, from which it borrows technical terminology, classification into genres, and many of its themes, stock characters, and plot elements. Theatre scholar [[Patrice Pavis]] defines theatricality, [[Theatre language|theatrical language]], stage writing, and the [[Medium specificity|specificity]] of theatre as synonymous expressions that differentiate theatre from the other [[performing arts]], [[literature]], and [[the arts]] in general.<ref>Pavis (1998, 345). Drawing on the "[[semeiotic]]s" of [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], Pavis goes on to suggest that "the specificity of theatrical signs may lie in their ability to use [[Semiotic elements and classes of signs (Peirce)#II. Icon, index, symbol|the three possible functions of signs]]: as [[Iconicity|icon]] ([[Mimesis|mimetically]]), as [[Indexicality|index]] (in the situation of [[enunciation]]), or as symbol (as a [[Semiotics|semiological system]] in the fictional mode). In effect, theatre makes the sources of the words visual and concrete: it indicates ''and'' incarnates a fictional world by means of signs, such that by the end of the process of signification and symbolization the spectator has reconstructed a theoretical and aesthetic model that accounts for the dramatic universe" (1998, 346).</ref>
Theatre today includes performances of plays and [[musical theatre|musicals]]. Although it can be defined broadly to include [[opera]] and [[ballet]], those art forms are outside the scope of this article.
==History==
{{Main|History of theatre}}
{{Campaignbox History of theatre by country}}
===Classical and Hellenistic Greece===
{{Campaignbox History of theatre}}
[[Image:Phlyax scene Louvre CA7249.jpg|thumb|210px|A master (right) and his slave (left) in a [[phlyax play]], circa 350/340 BC.]]
The [[Polis|city-state]] of [[Classical Athens|Athens]] is where western theatre originated.<ref>Brown (1998, 441), Cartledge (1997, 3–5), Goldhill (1997, 54). Brown writes that [[Theatre of ancient Greece|ancient Greek drama]] "was essentially the creation of [[classical Athens]]: all the dramatists who were later regarded as classics were active at Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE (the time of the [[Athenian democracy]]), and all the surviving plays date from this period" (1998, 441). "The dominant culture of [[Classical Athens|Athens in the fifth century]]", Goldhill writes, "can be said to have invented theatre" (1997, 54).</ref> It was part of a broader [[culture]] of theatricality and performance in [[classical Greece]] that included [[Athenian festivals|festivals]], [[Religion in ancient Greece|religious rituals]], [[Ancient Greece#Political structure|politics]], [[Ancient Greek law|law]], athletics and gymnastics, [[Music of ancient Greece|music]], [[Ancient Greek literature#Classical and Pre-Classical Antiquity|poetry]], weddings, funerals, and ''[[Symposium|symposia]]''.<ref>Cartledge (1997, 3, 6), Goldhill (1997, 54) and (1999, 20-xx), and Rehm (1992. 3). Goldhill argues that although activities that form "an integral part of the exercise of citizenship" (such as when "the Athenian citizen speaks in the Assembly, exercises in the gymnasium, sings at the symposium, or courts a boy") each have their "own regime of display and regulation," nevertheless the term "performance" provides "a useful heuristic category to explore the connections and overlaps between these different areas of activity" (1999, 1).</ref> Participation in the city-state's many festivals—and attendance at the [[Dionysia#City Dionysia|City Dionysia]] as an audience member (or even as a participant in the theatrical productions) in particular—was an important part of [[citizenship]].<ref>Pelling (2005, 83).</ref> Civic participation also involved the evaluation of the [[rhetoric]] of [[orators]] evidenced in performances in the [[Athenian law court (classical period)|law-court]] or [[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|political assembly]], both of which were understood as analogous to the theatre and increasingly came to absorb its dramatic vocabulary.<ref>Goldhill (1999, 25) and Pelling (2005, 83–84).</ref> The Greeks also developed the concepts of dramatic criticism, acting as a career, and theatre architecture.<ref>Dukore (1974, 31), Janko (1987, ix), and Ward (1945, 1).<!-- These citations only support "criticism" - need others for professional actors and architecture --></ref> The [[theatre of ancient Greece]] consisted of three types of [[drama]]: [[tragedy]], [[Comedy (drama)|comedy]], and the [[satyr play]].<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 15–19).</ref>
Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type of [[dance]]-drama that formed an important part of the theatrical culture of the city-state.<ref>Brown (1998, 441), Cartledge (1997, 3–5), Goldhill (1997, 54), Ley (2007, 206), and Styan (2000, 140). Taxidou notes that "most scholars now call 'Greek' tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically correct" (2004, 104).</ref> Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BCE, it flowered during the 5th century BCE (from the end of which it began to spread throughout the Greek world), and continued to be popular until the beginning of the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic period]].<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 32–33), Brown (1998, 444), and Cartledge (1997, 3–5). Cartledge writes that although [[Classical Athens|Athenians]] of the 4th century judged [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], and [[Euripides]] "as the nonpareils of the [[genre]], and regularly honoured their plays with revivals, tragedy itself was not merely a 5th-century phenomenon, the product of a short-lived [[Fifth-century Athens|golden age]]. If not attaining the quality and stature of the fifth-century 'classics', original tragedies nonetheless continued to be written and produced and competed with in large numbers throughout the remaining life of the [[Athenian democracy|democracy]]—and beyond it" (1997, 33).</ref> No tragedies from the 6th century BCE and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in during the 5th century BCE have survived.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 15) and Kovacs (2005, 379). We have seven by Aeschylus, seven by Sophocles, and eighteen by Euripides. In addition, we also have the ''[[Cyclops (play)|Cyclops]]'', a satyr play by Euripides. Some critics since the 17th century have argued that one of the tragedies that the classical tradition gives as Euripides'—''[[Rhesus (play)|Rhesus]]''—is a 4th-century play by an unknown author; modern scholarship agrees with the classical authorities and ascribes the play to Euripides; see Walton (1997, viii, xix). (This uncertainty accounts for Brockett and Hildy's figure of 31 tragedies.)</ref> We have complete texts [[Extant literature|extant]] by [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], and [[Euripides]].<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 15). The theory that ''[[Prometheus Bound]]'' was not written by [[Aeschylus]] adds a fourth, anonymous playwright to those whose work survives.</ref> The origins of tragedy remain obscure, though by the 5th century BCE it was [[institution]]alised in competitions (''[[agon]]'') held as part of festivities celebrating [[Dionysos]] (the [[Family tree of the Greek gods|god]] of [[wine]] and [[fertility]]).<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 13–15) and Brown (1998, 441–447).</ref> As contestants in the City Dionysia's competition (the most prestigious of the festivals to stage drama) playwrights were required to present a [[tetralogy]] of plays (though the individual works were not necessarily connected by story or theme), which usually consisted of three tragedies and one satyr play.<ref>Brown (1998, 442) and Brockett and Hildy (2003, 15–17). Exceptions to this pattern were made, as with [[Euripides]]' ''[[Alcestis (play)|Alcestis]]'' in 438 BCE. There were also separate competitions at the [[Dionysia#City Dionysia|City Dionysia]] for the performance of [[dithyramb]]s and, after 488–7 BCE, [[Ancient Greek comedy|comedies]].</ref> The performance of tragedies at the City Dionysia may have begun as early as 534 BCE; official records (''didaskaliai'') begin from 501 BCE, when the satyr play was introduced.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 13, 15) and Brown (1998, 442). Rehm offers the following argument as evidence that tragedy was not institutionalised until 501 BCE: "The specific cult honoured at the [[Dionysia#City Dionysia|City Dionysia]] was that of Dionysus Eleuthereus, the god ‘having to do with [[Eleutherae]]’, a town on the border between [[Boeotia]] and [[Attica]] that had a sanctuary to Dionysus. At some point [[Classical Athens|Athens]] annexed Eleutherae—most likely after the overthrow of the [[Peisistratos (Athens)|Peisistratid]] tyranny in 510 and the democratic reforms of [[Cleisthenes]] in 508–07 BCE—and the cult-image of Dionysus Eleuthereus was moved to its new home. Athenians re-enacted the incorporation of the god’s cult every year in a preliminary rite to the City Dionysia. On the day before the festival proper, the cult-statue was removed from the [[Greek temple|temple]] near the [[theatre of Dionysus]] and taken to a temple on the road to Eleutherae. That evening, after [[Animal sacrifice|sacrifice]] and [[hymn]]s, a torchlight procession carried the statue back to the temple, a symbolic re-creation of the god’s arrival into Athens, as well as a reminder of the inclusion of the Boeotian town into Attica. As the name Eleutherae is extremely close to eleutheria, ‘freedom’, Athenians probably felt that the new cult was particularly appropriate for celebrating their own political liberation and democratic reforms." (1992, 15).</ref> Most Athenian tragedies dramatise events from [[Greek mythology]], though ''[[The Persians]]''—which stages the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] response to news of their military defeat at the [[Battle of Salamis]] in 480 BCE—is the notable exception in the surviving drama.<ref>Brown (1998, 442). [[Jean-Pierre Vernant]] argues that in ''[[The Persians]]'' [[Aeschylus]] substitutes for the usual temporal distance between the audience and the [[Greek Heroic Age|age of heroes]] a spatial distance between the Western audience and the Eastern [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian culture]]. This substitution, he suggests, produces a similar effect: "The 'historic' events evoked by the chorus, recounted by the messenger and interpreted by Darius' ghost are presented on stage in a legendary atmosphere. The light that the tragedy sheds upon them is not that in which the political happenings of the day are normally seen; it reaches the Athenian theater refracted from a distant world of elsewhere, making what is absent seem present and visible on the stage"; Vernant and Vidal-Naquet (1988, 245).</ref> When Aeschylus won first prize for it at the City Dionysia in 472 BCE, he had been writing tragedies for more than 25 years, yet its tragic treatment of recent history is the earliest example of [[drama]] to survive.<ref>Brown (1998, 442) and Brockett and Hildy (2003, 15–16).</ref> More than 130 years later, the philosopher [[Aristotle]] analysed 5th-century Athenian tragedy in the oldest surviving work of [[dramatic theory]]—his ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'' (c. 335 BCE).
[[Ancient Greek comedy|Athenian comedy]] is conventionally divided into three periods, "Old Comedy", "Middle Comedy", and "New Comedy". Old Comedy survives today largely in the form of the eleven surviving plays of [[Aristophanes]], while Middle Comedy is largely lost (preserved only in relatively short fragments in authors such as [[Athenaeus of Naucratis]]). New Comedy is known primarily from the substantial papyrus fragments of [[Menander]]. Aristotle defined comedy as a representation of laughable people that involves some kind of blunder or ugliness that does not cause pain or disaster.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'', [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Aristot.+Poet.+1449a line 1449a]: "Comedy, as we have said, is a representation of inferior people, not indeed in the full sense of the word bad, but the laughable is a species of the base or ugly. It consists in some blunder or ugliness that does not cause pain or disaster, an obvious example being the comic mask which is ugly and distorted but not painful."</ref>
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===Roman theatre===
{{Main|Theatre of ancient Rome}}
[[File:Pompeii - Villa del Cicerone - Mosaic - MAN.jpg|thumb|Mosaic depicting masked actors in a play: two women consult a "witch".]]
Western theatre developed and expanded considerably under the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]]. The Roman historian [[Livy]] wrote that the Romans first experienced theatre in the 4th century BCE, with a performance by [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] actors.<ref>Beacham (1996, 2).</ref> Beacham argues that they had been familiar with "pre-theatrical practices" for some time before that recorded contact.<ref>Beacham (1996, 3).</ref> The [[theatre of ancient Rome]] was a thriving and diverse art form, ranging from [[Roman festival|festival]] performances of [[street theatre]], nude dancing, and [[acrobatics]], to the staging of [[Plautus]]'s broadly appealing situation [[Comedy (drama)|comedies]], to the [[high culture|high-style]], verbally elaborate [[Tragedy|tragedies]] of [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]]. Although Rome had a native tradition of performance, the [[Hellenization]] of [[Culture of ancient Rome|Roman culture]] in the 3rd century BCE had a profound and energizing effect on Roman theatre and encouraged the development of [[Latin literature]] of the highest quality for the stage.
===Post-classical theatre in the West===
Theatre took on many alternate forms in the West between the 15th and 19th centuries, including ''[[commedia dell'arte]]'' and [[melodrama]]. The general trend was away from the poetic drama of the Greeks and the [[Renaissance]] and toward a more naturalistic prose style of dialogue, especially following the [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref>Kuritz (1988, 305).</ref> <!-- Obviously, this is just a place-holder, as much is missing. -->
Through the [[Nineteenth-century theatre|19th century]], the popular theatrical forms of [[Romanticism]], [[melodrama]], [[Victorian burlesque]] and the [[well-made play]]s of [[Eugène Scribe|Scribe]] and [[Victorien Sardou|Sardou]] gave way to the [[problem play]]s of [[Naturalism (theatre)|Naturalism]] and [[Realism (theatre)|Realism]]; the [[farce]]s of [[Georges Feydeau|Feydeau]]; [[Richard Wagner|Wagner's]] [[opera]]tic ''[[Gesamtkunstwerk]]''; [[musical theatre]] (including [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]'s operas); [[F. C. Burnand]]'s, [[W. S. Gilbert]]'s and [[Oscar Wilde|Wilde's]] drawing-room comedies; [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]]; proto-[[Expressionism]] in the late works of [[August Strindberg]] and [[Henrik Ibsen]];<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 293–426).</ref> and [[Edwardian musical comedy]].
These trends continued through the [[Twentieth-century theatre|20th century]] in the [[Realism (theatre)|realism]] of [[Constantin Stanislavski|Stanislavski]] and [[Lee Strasberg]], the political theatre of [[Erwin Piscator]] and [[Bertolt Brecht]], the so-called [[Theatre of the Absurd]] of [[Samuel Beckett]] and [[Eugene Ionesco]], American and British musicals, the collective creations of companies of actors and directors such as [[Joan Littlewood]]'s [[Theatre Workshop]], experimental and [[postmodern theatre]] of [[Robert Wilson (director)|Robert Wilson]] and [[Robert Lepage]], the [[Postcolonialism|postcolonial]] theatre of [[August Wilson]] or [[Tomson Highway]], and [[Augusto Boal]]'s [[Theatre of the Oppressed]].
===Eastern theatrical traditions===
[[Image:Demon Yakshagana.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Rakshasa]]'' or the demon as depicted in [[Yakshagana]], a form of musical [[dance]]-[[drama]] from [[Theatre of India|India]].]]
The earliest form of [[Theatre of India|Indian theatre]] was the [[Sanskrit drama|Sanskrit theatre]].<ref name="Richmond, Swann 1993">Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 12).</ref> It began after the development of [[Theatre of ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Theatre of ancient Rome|Roman theatre]] and before the development of theatre in other parts of Asia.<ref name="Richmond, Swann 1993"/> It emerged sometime between the 2nd century BCE and the 1st century CE and flourished between the 1st century CE and the 10th, which was a period of relative peace in the [[history of India]] during which hundreds of plays were written.<ref>Brandon (1997, 70) and Richmond (1998, 516).</ref> Japanese forms of [[Kabuki]], [[Noh|Nō]], and [[Kyōgen]] developed in the 17th century CE.<ref>Deal (2007, 276).</ref> Theatre in the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]] included [[puppet]] theatre (which included hand puppets, [[shadow play]]s and [[marionette]] productions) and live passion plays known as ''ta'ziya'', where actors re-enact episodes from [[Muslim history]]. In particular, [[Shia Islam]]ic plays revolved around the ''[[shaheed]]'' (martyrdom) of [[Ali]]'s sons [[Hasan ibn Ali]] and [[Husayn ibn Ali]]. Secular plays were known as ''akhraja'', recorded in medieval ''[[Adab (behavior)|adab]]'' literature, though they were less common than puppetry and ''ta'ziya'' theatre.<ref>Moreh (1986, 565–601).</ref>
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==Types==
===Drama===
{{main|Drama}}
[[Drama]] is the specific [[Mode (literature)|mode]] of [[fiction]] [[Mimesis|represented]] in [[performance]].<ref name="elam98">Elam (1980, 98).</ref> The term comes from a [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word meaning "[[Action (philosophy)|action]]", which is derived from "to do". The enactment of drama in theatre, performed by [[actor]]s on a [[Stage (theatre)|stage]] before an [[audience]], presupposes [[Collaboration|collaborative]] modes of production and a [[collective]] form of reception. The [[Dramatic structure|structure of dramatic texts]], unlike other forms of [[literature]], is directly influenced by this collaborative production and collective reception.<ref name="Pfister 1977, 11">Pfister (1977, 11).</ref> The [[English Renaissance theatre|early modern]] [[tragedy]] ''[[Hamlet]]'' ([[1601 in literature|1601]]) by [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] and the [[Theatre of ancient Greece|classical Athenian]] tragedy ''[[Oedipus the King]]'' (c. 429 BCE) by [[Sophocles]] are among the masterpieces of the art of drama.<ref>Fergusson (1949, 2–3).</ref> A modern example is ''[[Long Day's Journey into Night]]'' by [[Eugene O’Neill]] (1956).<ref>Burt (2008, 30–35).</ref>
Considered as a genre of [[poetry]] in general, the dramatic mode has been contrasted with the [[Epic poetry|epic]] and the [[Lyric poetry|lyrical]] modes ever since [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'' (c. 335 BCE)—the earliest work of [[dramatic theory]].<ref>[[Francis Fergusson]] writes that "a drama, as distinguished from a [[Lyric poetry|lyric]], is not primarily a composition in the verbal medium; the [[Dialogue (fiction)|words]] result, as one might put it, from the underlying [[Dramatic structure|structure of incident]] and [[Character (arts)|character]]. As [[Poetics (Aristotle)|Aristotle]] remarks, 'the poet, or "maker" should be the maker of [[Plot (narrative)|plots]] rather than of verses; since he is a poet because he [[Mimesis|imiates]], and what he imitates are [[Action (philosophy)|actions]]'" (1949, 8).</ref> The use of "drama" in the narrow sense to designate a specific ''type'' of [[Play (theatre)|play]] dates from the [[Nineteenth-century theatre|19th century]]. Drama in this sense refers to a play that is ''neither'' a comedy nor a tragedy—for example, [[Émile Zola|Zola's]] ''[[Thérèse Raquin]]'' ([[1873 in literature|1873]]) or [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov's]] ''[[Ivanov (play)|Ivanov]]'' ([[1887 in literature|1887]]).
Drama is often combined with [[music]] and [[dance]]: the drama in [[opera]] is generally sung throughout; [[Musical theatre|musicals]] generally include both spoken [[dialogue]] and [[song]]s; and some forms of drama have [[incidental music]] or musical accompaniment underscoring the dialogue ([[melodrama]] and Japanese [[Noh|Nō]], for example).<ref name="cgt">See the entries for "opera", "musical theatre, American", "melodrama" and "Nō" in Banham (1998).</ref> In certain periods of history (the ancient [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and modern [[Romanticism|Romantic]]) some dramas have been written to be [[Closet drama|read]] rather than performed.<ref name="closet">While there is some dispute among theatre historians, it is probable that the plays by the Roman [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] were not intended to be performed. ''[[Manfred]]'' by [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Byron]] is a good example of a "[[Verse drama and dramatic verse|dramatic poem]]." See the entries on "Seneca" and "Byron (George George)" in Banham (1998).</ref> In [[Improvisational theatre|improvisation]], the drama does not pre-exist the moment of performance; performers devise a dramatic script spontaneously before an audience.<ref name="impro">Some forms of improvisation, notably the [[Commedia dell'arte]], improvise on the basis of '[[lazzi]]' or rough outlines of scenic action (see Gordon (1983) and Duchartre (1929)). All forms of improvisation take their cue from their immediate response to one another, their characters' situations (which are sometimes established in advance), and, often, their interaction with the audience. The classic formulations of improvisation in the theatre originated with [[Joan Littlewood]] and [[Keith Johnstone]] in the UK and [[Viola Spolin]] in the USA; see Johnstone (1981) and Spolin (1963).</ref>
===Musical theatre===
{{Main|Musical theatre}}
[[Music]] and theatre have had a close relationship since ancient times—[[Classical Athens|Athenian]] [[tragedy]], for example, was a form of [[dance]]-[[drama]] that employed a [[Greek chorus|chorus]] whose parts were sung (to the accompaniment of an ''[[aulos]]''—an instrument comparable to the modern [[clarinet]]), as were some of the actors' responses and their 'solo songs' ([[Monody|monodies]]).<ref>Rehm (1992, 150n7).</ref> Modern [[musical theatre]] is a form of theatre that also combines music, spoken dialogue, and dance. It emerged from [[comic opera]] (especially [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]), [[Variety show|variety]], [[vaudeville]], and [[music hall]] genres of the late [[Nineteenth-century theatre|19th]] and early [[Twentieth-century theatre|20th century]].<ref>Jones (2003, 4–11).</ref> After the [[Edwardian musical comedy]] that began in the 1890s, the [[Princess Theatre]] musicals of the early 20th century, and comedies in the 1920s and 1930s (such as the works of [[Rodgers and Hart]]), with ''[[Oklahoma!]]'' (1943), musicals moved in a more dramatic direction.<ref>The first "[[Edwardian musical comedy]]" is usually considered to be ''[[In Town (musical)|In Town]]'' (1892), even though it was produced eight years before the beginning of the [[Edwardian era]]; see, for example, Fraser Charlton, [http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/fraser.charlton/edmuscom/page12/edmuscom_what.html "What are EdMusComs?"] (FrasrWeb 2007, accessed May 12, 2011).</ref> Famous musicals over the subsequent decades included ''[[My Fair Lady]]'' (1956), ''[[West Side Story (musical)|West Side Story]]'' (1957), ''[[The Fantasticks]]'' (1960), ''[[Hair (musical)|Hair]]'' (1967), ''[[A Chorus Line]]'' (1975), ''[[Les Misérables (musical)|Les Misérables]]'' (1980), and ''[[The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)|The Phantom of the Opera]]'' (1986).<ref>{{cite web| first = John| last = Kenrick | title = History of Stage Musicals| url = http://www.musicals101.com/erastage.htm| year = 2003| accessdate = May 26, 2009}}<!-- Looking for a printed source in preference to theatre dept's webpage --></ref>
Musical theatre may be produced on an intimate scale [[Off-Broadway]], in [[Community theatre|regional theatres]], and elsewhere, but it often includes spectacle. For instance, [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] and [[West End theatre|West End]] musicals often include lavish costumes and sets supported by multi-million dollar budgets.<!-- Need a source that says B/WE musicals often include these, rather than an example -->
===Comedy===
{{Main|Comedy}}
[[File:Roman masks.png|thumb|Theatrical masks of Tragedy and Comedy. Mosaic, [[Roman art]]work, 2nd century CE.]]
Theatre productions that use [[humour]] as a vehicle to tell a story qualify as comedies. This may include a modern [[farce]] such as ''[[Boeing-Boeing (play)|Boeing Boeing]]'' or a classical play such as ''[[As You Like It]]''. Theatre expressing bleak, controversial or taboo subject matter in a deliberately humorous way is referred to as [[black comedy]].
===Tragedy===
{{Main|Tragedy}}
{{quote|Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude;
in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play;
in the form of action, not of narrative;
through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions.|[[Aristotle]]|[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]<ref>S.H. Butcher, [http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/poetics/], 2011</ref>}}
[[Tragedy]] refers to a specific [[Poetic tradition|tradition]] of [[drama]] that has played a unique and important role historically in the self-definition of [[Western culture|Western civilisation]].<ref>Banham (1998, 1118) and Williams (1966, 14–16).</ref> That tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used to invoke a powerful effect of [[cultural identity]] and historical continuity—"the [[Classical Athens|Greeks]] and the [[Elizabethan era|Elizabethans]], in one cultural form; [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenes]] and [[Christian]]s, in a common activity," as [[Raymond Williams]] puts it.<ref>Williams (1966, 16).</ref> From its obscure origins in the [[Theatre of ancient Greece|theatres of Athens]] 2,500 years ago, from which there survives only a fraction of the work of [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]] and [[Euripides]], through its singular articulations in the works of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Lope de Vega]], [[Jean Racine|Racine]], and [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]], to the more recent [[Naturalism (theatre)|naturalistic]] tragedy of [[August Strindberg|Strindberg]], [[Samuel Beckett|Beckett's]] [[Modernism|modernist]] meditations on death, loss and suffering, and [[Heiner Müller|Müller's]] [[Postmodernism|postmodernist]] reworkings of the tragic canon, tragedy has remained an important site of cultural experimentation, negotiation, struggle, and change.<ref>Williams (1966, 13–84) and Taxidou (2004, 193–209).</ref> In the wake of Aristotle's ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'' (335 BCE), tragedy has been used to make [[genre]] distinctions, whether at the scale of [[poetry]] in general (where the tragic divides against [[Epic poetry|epic]] and [[Lyric poetry|lyric]]) or at the scale of the drama (where tragedy is opposed to [[Comedy (drama)|comedy]]). In the [[Modernity|modern]] era, tragedy has also been defined against drama, [[melodrama]], [[Tragicomedy|the tragicomic]], and [[epic theatre]].<ref>See Carlson (1993), Pfister (1977), Elam (1980) and Taxidou (2004). [[Drama]], in the narrow sense, cuts across the traditional division between comedy and tragedy in an anti- or a-[[Genre|generic]] [[deterritorialization]] from the [[Nineteenth century theatre|mid-19th century]] onwards. Both [[Bertolt Brecht]] and [[Augusto Boal]] define their [[epic theatre]] projects ([[Non-Aristotelian drama]] and [[Theatre of the Oppressed]] respectively) against models of [[tragedy]]. Taxidou, however, reads epic theatre as an incorporation of tragic functions and its treatments of mourning and speculation (2004, 193–209).</ref>
==Theories of theatre==
{{Main|Dramatic theory}}
[[File:Kirmestheater1.JPG|thumb|Village feast with theatre performance circa 1600.]]
Having been an important part of human culture for more than 2,500 years, theatre has evolved a wide range of different [[Dramatic theory|theories]] and practices. Some are related to political or spiritual ideologies, while others are based purely on "artistic" concerns. Some processes focus on a story, some on theatre as event, and some on theatre as catalyst for social change. The [[Ancient Greek philosophy|classical Greek philosopher]] [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'' (c. 335 BCE) is the earliest-surviving example and its arguments have influenced theories of theatre ever since.<ref>Dukore (1974, 31) and Janko (1987, ix).</ref> In it, he offers an account of what he calls "poetry" (a term which in Greek literally means "making" and in this context includes [[drama]]—[[Comedy (drama)|comedy]], [[tragedy]], and the [[satyr play]]—as well as [[lyric poetry]], [[epic poetry]], and the [[dithyramb]]). He examines its "first principles" and identifies its [[genre]]s and basic elements; his analysis of [[tragedy]] constitutes the core of the discussion.<ref>Aristotle ''Poetics'' 1447a13 (1987, 1).</ref> He argues that tragedy consists of six qualitative parts, which are (in order of importance) ''[[Mythos (Aristotle)|mythos]]'' or "plot", ''[[ethos]]'' or "character", ''[[dianoia]]'' or "thought", ''[[Lexis (Aristotle)|lexis]]'' or "diction", ''[[Melos (Aristotle)|melos]]'' or "song", and ''[[opsis]]'' or "spectacle".<ref>Carlson (1993, 19) and Janko (1987, xx, 7–10).</ref> "Although Aristotle's ''Poetics'' is universally acknowledged in the [[Western culture|Western]] critical tradition," Marvin Carlson explains, "almost every detail about his seminal work has aroused divergent opinions."<ref>Carlson (1993, 16).</ref> Important [[theatre practitioner]]s of the [[Twentieth-century theatre|20th century]] include [[Konstantin Stanislavski]], [[Vsevolod Meyerhold]], [[Edward Gordon Craig]], [[Bertolt Brecht]], [[Antonin Artaud]], [[Luís de Sttau Monteiro]], [[Joan Littlewood]], [[Peter Brook]], [[Jerzy Grotowski]], [[Augusto Boal]], and [[Dario Fo]].
Stanislavski treated the theatre as an [[The arts|art-form]] that is [[Medium specificity|autonomous]] from [[literature]] and one in which the [[playwright]]'s contribution should be respected as that of only one of an ensemble of creative artists.<ref>Benedetti (1999a, 124, 202) and (2008b, 6), Carnicke (1998, 162), and Gauss (1999, 2). In 1902, Stanislavski wrote that "the author writes on paper. The actor writes with his body on the stage" and that the "score of an opera is not the opera itself and the script of a play is not drama until both are made flesh and blood on stage"; quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 124).</ref> His innovative contribution to modern acting theory has remained at the core of mainstream [[Western culture|western]] performance training for much of the last century.<ref>Banham (1998, 1032), Carnicke (1998, 1), Counsell (1996, 24–25), Gordon (2006, 37–40), and Leach (2004, 29).</ref> That many of the precepts of his [[Stanislavski's 'system'|'system' of actor training]] seem to be common sense and self-evident testifies to its hegemonic success.<ref name="Counsell 1996, 25">Counsell (1996, 25).</ref> Actors frequently employ his basic concepts without knowing they do so.<ref name="Counsell 1996, 25"/> Thanks to its promotion and elaboration by acting teachers who were former students and the many translations of his theoretical writings, Stanislavski's 'system' acquired an unprecedented ability to cross cultural boundaries and developed an international reach, dominating debates about acting in Europe and America.<ref>Banham (1998, 1032), Carnicke (1998, 1, 167), Counsell (1996, 24), and Milling and Ley (2001, 1).</ref> Many actors routinely equate his 'system' with the American [[Method acting|Method]], although the latter's exclusively psychological techniques contrast sharply with Stanislavski's multivariant, holistic and [[Psychophysiology|psychophysical]] approach, which explores character and action both from the 'inside out' and the 'outside in' and treats the actor's mind and body as parts of a continuum.<ref>Benedetti (2005, 147–148) and Carnicke (1998, 1, 8).</ref>
==Technical aspects of theatre==
[[File:Runaways musical fog red .jpg|thumb|An example of [[stage lighting]] and [[theatrical fog]].]]
{{Main|Stagecraft}}
Theatre presupposes [[Collaboration|collaborative]] modes of production and a [[collective]] form of reception. The [[Dramatic structure|structure of dramatic texts]], unlike other forms of [[literature]], is directly influenced by this collaborative production and collective reception.<ref name="Pfister 1977, 11"/> The production of [[Play (theatre)|plays]] usually involves contributions from a [[playwright]], [[theatre director|director]], a [[Cast member|cast]] of [[actor]]s, and a technical [[production team]] that includes a [[set designer|scenic or set designer]], [[lighting designer]], [[costume designer]], [[sound design]]er, [[Stage management|stage manager]], and [[production manager]]. Depending on the production, this team may also include a [[composer]], [[Dramaturge|dramaturg]], [[video designer]] or [[fight director]].
The technical aspects of theatrical production are described collectively as "[[stagecraft]]". This includes, but is not limited to, the construction and rigging of [[Theatrical scenery|scenery]], the hanging and focusing of [[Stage lighting|lighting]], the [[Costume design|design]] and procurement of [[Stage clothes|costumes]], [[Theatrical makeup|make-up]], sourcing of [[Theatrical properties|props]], stage management, and recording and mixing of sound. Stagecraft is considered a technical rather than an artistic field, and it relates primarily to the practical implementation of a designer's artistic vision. This distinguishes it from the more recent, wider discipline of [[scenography]].
Stagecraft may be implemented by any number of workers, from a single person (who arranges all scenery, costumes, lighting, sound, and organizes the cast) to hundreds of skilled carpenters, painters, electricians, stagehands, stitchers, wigmakers, and the like. This modern form of stagecraft is highly technical and specialized: it comprises many sub-disciplines and encompasses a vast trove of history and tradition. Regional theatres and larger [[community theatre]]s will generally have a technical director and a complement of designers, each of whom has a direct hand in their respective designs.
==Theatre organization and administration==
There are many modern theatre movements which go about producing theatre in a variety of ways.
[[File:Cruikshank Pierce' Egan's Real Life - Drury Lane Theatre 1821.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane]], London circa 1821]]
Theatrical enterprise varies enormously in sophistication and purpose. People who are involved vary from professionals to hobbyists to spontaneous novices. Theatre can be performed with no money at all or on a grand scale with multi-million dollar budgets. This diversity manifests in the abundance of theatre sub-categories, which include:
* [[Broadway theatre]] and [[West End theatre]]
* [[Community theatre]]
* [[Dinner theatre]]
* [[Fringe theatre]]
* [[Off-Broadway]] and [[Off West End]]
* [[Off-Off-Broadway]]
* [[Regional theatre in the United States|Regional theatre]]
* [[Summer stock theatre]]
"West End theatre" is a popular term for mainstream professional theatre that is staged in the large theatres of [[London]]'s 'Theatreland', the [[West End of London|West End]].<ref>Banham (1998, 1194–1195).</ref> Along with [[New York City|New York]]'s [[Broadway theatre]], West End theatre is usually considered to represent the highest level of commercial theatre in the [[English language|English-speaking]] world. Seeing a West End show is a common [[tourism|tourist]] activity in London.<ref name="cgt"/> Total attendances first surpassed 12 million in 2002 and 13 million in 2007, setting a new record for the West End.<ref>{{cite web|last=Singh |first=Anita |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2268735/TV-talent-shows-help-West-End-shows-to-record-audience.html |title=TV talent shows help West End shows to record audience|publisher=Telegraph |date=8 July 2008 |accessdate=17 January 2010}}</ref> Since the late 1990s there has been an increase in the number of famous screen actors on the London stage.
===Repertory companies===
While most modern theatre companies rehearse one piece of theatre at a time, perform that piece for a set "run", retire the piece, and begin rehearsing a new show, [[repertory]] companies rehearse multiple shows at one time. These companies are able to perform these various pieces upon request and often perform works for years before retiring them. Most dance companies operate on this repertory system. The [[Royal National Theatre]] in [[London]] performs on a repertory system.
Repertory theatre generally involves a group of similarly accomplished actors, and relies more on the reputation of the group than on an individual star actor. It also typically relies less on strict control by a director and less on adherence to theatrical conventions, since actors who have worked together in multiple productions can respond to each other without relying as much on convention or external direction.<ref>Peterson (1982.)</ref>
===Producing vs. presenting===
In order to put on a piece of theatre, both a theatre company and a [[theatre (structure)|theatre venue]] are needed. When a theatre company is the sole company in residence at a theatre venue, this theatre (and its corresponding theatre company) are called a resident theatre or a producing theatre, because the venue produces its own work. Other theatre companies, as well as dance companies, do not have their own theatre venue. These companies perform at rental theatres or at presenting theatres. Both rental and presenting theatres have no full time resident companies. They do, however, sometimes have one or more part time resident companies, in addition to other independent partner companies who arrange to use the space when available. A rental theatre allows the independent companies to seek out the space, while a presenting theatre seeks out the independent companies to support their work by presenting them on their stage.
Some performance groups perform in non-theatrical spaces. Such performances can take place outside or inside, in a non-traditional performance space, and include [[street theatre]], and [[site specific theatre]]. Non-traditional venues can be used to create more immersive or meaningful environments for audiences. They can sometimes be modified more heavily than traditional theatre venues, or can accommodate different kinds of equipment, lighting and sets.<ref>Alice T. Carter, "[http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/s_575857.html Non-traditional venues can inspire art, or just great performances]", ''[[Pittsburgh Tribune-Review]]'', 2008-07-07. Retrieved 2011-02-12.</ref>
A [[touring theatre|touring company]] is an independent theatre or dance company that travels, often internationally, being presented at a different theatre in each city.
===Unions===
There are many theatre unions including [[Actors Equity Association]] (for actors and stage managers), the [[Stage Directors and Choreographers Society]] (SDC), and the [[International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees]] (IATSE, for designers and technicians). Many theatres require that their staff be members of these organizations.
==See also==
{{Main|Outline of theatre}}
{{Portal|Theatre}}
{{div col|cols=3}}
* [[Acting]]
* [[Alternative theatre]]
* [[Black light theatre]]
* [[Culinary theatre]]
* [[Illusionistic tradition]]
* [[List of theatre personnel|Employment in theatre]]
* [[List of awards in theatre]]
* [[List of notable theatre festivals]]
* [[List of playwrights]]
* [[List of theatre directors]]
* [[Performance art]]
* [[Reader's theatre]]
* [[Theatre consultant]]
* [[Theatre for development]]
* [[Theater (structure)]]
* [[Theatre technique]]
* [[Theatrical style]]
{{div col end}}
==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Aston, Elaine, and George Savona. 1991. ''Theatre as Sign-System: A Semiotics of Text and Performance''. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415049320.
* Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. ''The Cambridge Guide to Theatre.'' Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 0521434378.
* Beacham, Richard C. 1996. ''The Roman Theatre and Its Audience.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP. ISBN 978-0674779143.
* Benedetti, Jean. 1999. ''Stanislavski: His Life and Art''. Revised edition. Original edition published in 1988. London: Methuen. ISBN 0413525201.
* ---. 2005. ''The Art of the Actor: The Essential History of Acting, From Classical Times to the Present Day.'' London: Methuen. ISBN 0413773361.
* ---. 2008. "Stanislavski on Stage". In Dacre and Fryer (2008, 6–9).
* [[Walter Benjamin|Benjamin, Walter]]. 1928. ''The Origin of German Tragic Drama.'' Trans. John Osborne. London and New York: Verso, 1998. ISBN 1859848990.
* Brown, John Russell. 1997. ''What is Theatre?: An Introduction and Exploration.'' Boston and Oxford: Focal P. ISBN 978-0240802329 .
* Brandon, James R., ed. 1997. ''The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre.''' 2nd, rev. ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0521588225.
* Burt, Daniel S. 2008. ''The Drama 100: A Ranking of the Greatest Plays of All Time.'' New York: Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-6073-3.
* Carlson, Marvin. 1993. ''Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the Present.'' Expanded ed. Ithaca and London: Cornell UP. ISBN 0801481546.
* Carnicke, Sharon M. 1998. ''Stanislavsky in Focus''. Russian Theatre Archive Ser. London: Harwood Academic Publishers. ISBN 9057550709.
* ---. 2000. "Stanislavsky's System: Pathways for the Actor". In Hodge (2000, 11–36).
* Counsell, Colin. 1996. ''Signs of Performance: An Introduction to Twentieth-Century Theatre.'' London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415106436.
* Dacre, Kathy, and Paul Fryer, eds. 2008. ''Stanislavski on Stage.'' Sidcup, Kent: Stanislavski Centre Rose Bruford College. ISBN 1903454018.
* Deal, William E. 2007. ''Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan.'' Oxford: Oxford UP. ISBN 978-0-19-533126-4.
* [[Gilles Deleuze|Deleuze, Gilles]] and [[Félix Guattari]]. 1972. ''[[Anti-Œdipus]]''. Trans. Robert Hurley, Mark Seem and Helen R. Lane. London and New York: Continuum, 2004. Vol. 1 . New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen. ISBN 0416720609.
* Dukore, Bernard F., ed. 1974. ''Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski''. Florence, KY: Heinle & Heinle. ISBN 978-0030911521.
* Elam, Keir. 1980. ''The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama''. New Accents Ser. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415039840.
* Felski, Rita, ed. 2008. ''Rethinking Tragedy.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP. ISBN 0801887402.
* [[Francis Fergusson|Fergusson, Francis]]. 1949. ''The Idea of a Theater: A Study of Ten Plays, The Art of Drama in a Changing Perspective.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1968. ISBN 0691012881.
* Gauss, Rebecca B. 1999. ''Lear's Daughters: The Studios of the Moscow Art Theatre 1905–1927''. American University Studies ser. 26 Theatre Arts, vol. 29. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0820441559.
* Gordon, Mel. 1983. ''[[Lazzi]]: The Comic Routines of the Commedia dell'Arte''. New York: Performing Arts Journal. ISBN 0933826699.
* Gordon, Robert. 2006. ''The Purpose of Playing: Modern Acting Theories in Perspective.'' Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P. ISBN 978-0472068876.
* Harrison, Martin. 1998. ''The Language of Theatre''. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1857543742.
* [[Phyllis Hartnoll|Hartnoll, Phyllis]], ed. 1983. ''The Oxford Companion to the Theatre''. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford UP. ISBN 978-0192115461.
* Hodge, Alison, ed. 2000. ''Twentieth-Century Actor Training''. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415194525.
* Janko, Richard, trans. 1987. ''Poetics with Tractatus Coislinianus, Reconstruction of Poetics II and the Fragments of the On Poets.'' By [[Aristotle]]. Cambridge: Hackett. ISBN 978-0872200333.
* [[Keith Johnstone|Johnstone, Keith]]. 1981. ''Impro: Improvisation and the Theatre'' Rev. ed. London: Methuen, 2007. ISBN 0713687010.
* Jones, John Bush. 2003. ''Our Musicals, Ourselves: A Social History of the American Musical Theatre.'' Hanover: Brandeis UP. ISBN 1584653116.
* Kuritz, Paul. 1988. ''The Making of Theatre History.'' Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-547861-5.
* Leach, Robert. 1989. ''Vsevolod Meyerhold''. Directors in perspective ser. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0521318433.
* ---. 2004. ''Makers of Modern Theatre: An Introduction''. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415312417.
* Leach, Robert, and Victor Borovsky, eds. 1999. ''A History of Russian Theatre.'' Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0521034357.
* Meyer-Dinkgräfe, Daniel. 2001. ''Approaches to Acting: Past and Present.'' London and New York: Continuum. ISBN 978-0826478795.
* [[Vsevolod Meyerhold|Meyerhold, Vsevolod]]. 1991. ''Meyerhold on Theatre''. Ed. and trans. Edward Braun. Revised edition. London: Methuen. ISBN 978-0413387905.
* Milling, Jane, and Graham Ley. 2001. ''Modern Theories of Performance: From Stanislavski to Boal''. Basingstoke, Hampshire and New York: Palgrave. ISBN 978-0333775424.
* Mitter, Shomit. 1992. ''Systems of Rehearsal: Stanislavsky, Brecht, Grotowski and Brook.'' London and NY: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415067843.
* Moreh, Shmuel. 1986. "Live Theater in Medieval Islam." In ''Studies in Islamic History and Civilization in Honour of Professor David Ayalon.'' Ed. Moshe Sharon. Cana, Leiden: Brill. 565–601. ISBN 978-9652640147.
* [[Patrice Pavis|Pavis, Patrice]]. 1998. ''Dictionary of the Theatre: Terms, Concepts, and Analysis.'' Trans. Christine Shantz. Toronto and Buffalo: U of Toronto P. ISBN 978-0802081636.
* Peterson, Richard A. 1982. "Five Constraints on the Production of Culture: Law, Technology, Market, Organizational Structure and Occupational Careers." ''The Journal of Popular Culture'' 16.2: 143–153.
* Pfister, Manfred. 1977. ''The Theory and Analysis of Drama''. Trans. John Halliday. European Studies in English Literature Ser. Cambridige: Cambridge University Press, 1988. ISBN 978-0521423830.
* Rayner, Alice. 1994. ''To Act, To Do, To Perform: Drama and the Phenomenology of Action.'' Theater: Theory/Text/Performance Ser. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472105373.
* [[Rush Rehm|Rehm, Rush]]. 1992. ''Greek Tragic Theatre.'' Theatre Production Studies ser. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415118948.
* Richmond, Farley. 1998. "India." In Banham (1998, 516–525).
* Richmond, Farley P., Darius L. Swann, and Phillip B. Zarrilli, eds. 1993. ''Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance.'' U of Hawaii P. ISBN 978-0824813222.
* Roach, Joseph R. 1985. ''The Player's Passion: Studies in the Science of Acting''. Theater:Theory/Text/Performance Ser. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P. ISBN 978-0472082445.
* Speirs, Ronald, trans. 1999. ''The Birth of Tragedy and Other Writings.'' By [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. Ed. Raymond Geuss and Ronald Speirs. Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy ser. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 0521639875.
* [[Viola Spolin|Spolin, Viola]]. 1967. ''Improvisation for the Theater''. Third rev. ed Evanston, Il.: Northwestern University Press, 1999. ISBN 081014008X.
* Taxidou, Olga. 2004. ''Tragedy, Modernity and Mourning''. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP. ISBN 0748619879.
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* [[Raymond Williams|Williams, Raymond]]. 1966. ''Modern Tragedy''. London: Chatto & Windus. ISBN 0701112603.
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Wiktionary|actor|actress|player}}
{{commons}}
{{Wikiversity|Collaborative play writing}}
{{Wikibooks|History of Western Theatre: Greeks to Elizabethans}}
{{Wikibooks|History of Western Theatre: 17th Century to Now}}
<!-- Please do not add links to individual theatre companies, festivals, or the like. All links should be relevant to the
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* [http://www.bl.uk/projects/theatrearchive/homepage.html Theatre Archive Project (UK)] British Library & University of Sheffield.
* [[Wikia:theatre|Theater Wikia]] – An editable database dedicated to all aspects of theatre.
* [http://www.bris.ac.uk/theatrecollection/ University of Bristol Theatre Collection]
* [http://www.arthurlloyd.co.uk Music Hall and Theatre History of Britain and Ireland]
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